Simultaneous determination of morphine and codeine using additive-manufactured electrodes with conductive filaments based on recycled PLA

Carla, CCB, Marra, MC, Rocha, RG ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4978-8532, Di-Oliveira, M ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6132-4506, Oliveira, ACM, Crapnell, RD ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8701-3933, Richter, EM, Banks, CE ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0756-9764 and Muñoz, RAA ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8230-5825 (2025) Simultaneous determination of morphine and codeine using additive-manufactured electrodes with conductive filaments based on recycled PLA. Microchemical Journal, 213. 113830. ISSN 0026-265X

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Abstract

The ongoing opioid crisis represents a critical global public health challenge, significantly impacting social outcomes and largely driven by widespread misuse and prolonged abuse. Codeine (COD) and morphine (MOR) are among the most consumed opioids worldwide. In this study, we propose a novel approach for the simultaneous detection of both compounds using additively manufactured electrodes (AMEs) composed of graphite, carbon black, and recycled poly(lactic) acid (Gpt-CB/rPLA). Prior to use, the AMEs underwent a chemical/electrochemical activation process in an alkaline medium (0.5 mol L−1 NaOH solution) to enhance their electrochemical performance, as confirmed through electrochemical characterization. Utilizing differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), we achieved linear detection ranges of 0.5–10.0 µmol L−1 for MOR and 1.0–10.0 µmol L−1 for COD, with limits of detection (LOD) of 0.05 and 0.07 µmol L−1 for MOR and COD, respectively. Additionally, recovery studies demonstrated excellent precision, with recovery values from approximately 81 % to 116 % when analyzing pharmaceutical and synthetic saliva samples.